The essence and specific features of existing approaches to the investigation and quantitative assessment of soil diversity are outlined, namely: a) the theory of soil cover structures; b) the principles and methods of geostatistics; and c) the concepts and methods of the pedodiversity theory. Application and interpretation of data obtained by different methods are exemplified. The quantitative parameters which are considered in the theory of soil cover structures characterize the genesis of soil cover and the degree of connection between its components. The principal tasks of geostatistics are to describe the spatial variation of soil properties, while the pedodiversity studies aim mainly at the «information content» of soil cover which depends on the number of soil taxa and their spatial distribution within a certain territory. The assessment of taxonomic diversity and the diversity of soil properties (functional diversity) is complementary, and fully reflects the discrete-continuous nature of the soil cover.

Climate changes are governed by the global changes of the concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols, as well as the regional changes of atmospheric circulation. Within a large urban area, the microclimate change (particularly climate warming) is amplified under the influence of sharply modified land surface properties. This is the process of the. Differences in meteorological parameters between the urban and rural areas form the so-called «islands». These are the Urban heat/cool island (UHI or UCI) and the Urban dry/ wet island (UDI or UWI) in the case of moisture shortage/excess within the urban area. The focus of this paper is the climate change of the Moscow megacity, including the changes of urban islands. Available meteorological observations within the Moscow urban area and surrounding territory make it possible to assess the urban-induced climate warming component separately from the climate variations typical to the whole central part of the East European Plain. According to the ground observation data during recent 15 years the intensity of the heat island has increased despite a «pause» in the process of global warming. To obtain more precise viewing of the UHI structure the satellite data (METOP-A and METOP-B) were analyzed together with those of ground observations. The former provide temperature and humidity profiles with the spatial resolution of 2525 km2. It was found that the UHI vertical extension could reach ~2 km. During summer, the lower part of UHI is at the same time the UDI, while its upper part is the UWI. In winter, the lower part of UHI is the UWI.

A new cartographic method for the visualization of socio-economic events and objects, i.e. a polar area diagram with average values, is suggested which emphasizes the local structural peculiarities in comparison with the national or regional averages. This method is a modified circular diagram where the additional circle shows the average values of all indicators in the country, and the radius of each sector demonstrates a parity of the relative size of a particular sector with the national average. If the size is higher than the average level the radius will go outside the circle and vise versa. This is why the very asymmetry of the diagram reflects the specific features of a given object. Practical application of the method is illustrated by the investigation of the structure of Chinese Diaspora in the USA.

The regularities of poisonous plants distribution in Russia are revealed and their dependence on several climatic factors is analyzed. The study includes 82 species of the most poisonous plants belonging to 34 families and 58 genera. 55 species of Aconitum genus (Ranunculaceae) are considered separately because of their specific geographical distribution. The cartographic analysis shows that the minimum numbers of poisonous plants species (20 and less) are typical to the northern regions of Russia while the maximum numbers (more than 40) are characteristic of the Krasnodar Krai, Republic of Adygea and Kursk region. The analysis of correlation of plant species numbers with two climatic factors shows the most evident correlation between the number of poisonous plant species (apart from the Aconitum species) and the mean annual air temperature. No reliable correlation between the number of poisonous plant species and the amount of precipitation was found. The pattern of the Aconitum species distribution depends on the distance from the genus diversity center rather than on climatic factors.

The actual situation in Russia’s single-industry cities by the end of 2016 was evaluated and the proportion of cities where the employment at major enterprises already doesn’t meet the single-industry criteria was calculated. The influence of crisis on the local labor markets and the unemployment rates recorded for them is discussed, and the zones with the most complicated situations are identified. Labor migration of single-industry cities inhabitants is analyzed, as well as its changes during the crisis period. The interrelation between labor mobility, proportion of the major company employees and the unemployment rate in single-industry cities is described.

Spatial characteristics of oceanic convection in the North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre in winter 2013/14 are investigated basing on the analysis of Argo float data. Domains of the most intense convective mixing are identified by quantifying and mapping the water column vertical stratification. The areas of the Subpolar Mode Water formation are found along the Irminger Current, namely over the northwestern slope of the Reykjanes Ridge and in the vicinity of the Denmark Strait. The location of convection domains and the spatial changes of mixed layer properties in these domains are in a good agreement with a contemporary concept stating the localized formation of the mode waters along each of the individual branches of the North Atlantic Current and the increasing density of the mode waters in the northward direction. The main role in the formation of the Labrador Sea Water belonged to the convection zone in the Labrador Sea, where the mixing depth reached 1750 m for the first time over the past six years. The relatively cold and fresh intermediate waters, matching the Labrador Sea Water in their properties, were also formed in the domain to the south of the Cape Farewell and in the southern part of the Irminger Sea.

The ecological-geochemical assessment of the Bakchar and Iksa river basins is based on the analysis of lateral distribution and migration of chemical elements in swamp waters. The active accumulation of Na+, Fetotal, Mg2+, NH4+, Cl– and NO3– was revealed within the facies of the Bakchar bog; Fetotal, NH4+; NO3– and Cl– accumulate within the facies of the Iksa drained bog, and Na+ within the facies of the Samara mire. Intensive removal of Mg2+ is typical of the Bakchar bog; removal of Fetotal and NO3– takes place in the Samara mire, while the Iksa drained bog is characterized by no elements removal. The intensity of lateral migration of the studied elements decreases in the series «the Iksa bog – the Bakchar bog – the Samara mire». Migration of chemical elements in the Bakchar bog and the Samara mire has rising geochemical structure, and the Iksa bog has a pike-shaped distribution of geochemical elements.

To assess the contribution of natural and positional factors in the land use structure and dynamics it is necessary to create a detailed land use reconstruction based on the landscape structure of a territory. The study area is located within the well-studied part of the Ryazan Meschera (Klepikovsky District), on the border of moraine-fluvioglacial and valley-outwash landscapes, in the vicinity of the Lesunovo training and research station. The structure of land use was reconstructed for several periods basing on the methods of combined digital analysis of various historical data (from the Ordnance Survey materials up to present-day imagery). The analysis of land use changes accounts for the contribution of the landscape structure of the territory which includes several natural factors, such as topography, sediments, soils, etc. The positional factor considers for the distance to rivers, roads, villages with due account of the population numbers. The study made it possible to conclude that the spatial structure of land use heavily depends on natural and positional factors (70–80% for particular periods). Over the last 250 years its configuration was relatively stable because it is rather tightly controlled by a combination of nutrient supply in soils and drainage conditions which are the principal limiting factors of agriculture within the Meshchera lowland.

The experience of using the results of sociological studies for the analysis of the Astana agglomeration development is discussed. Basing on the results of questioning the inhabitants of the Astana city and other settlements located in its zone of influence, possible application of a social evaluation technique for the territory of forming agglomeration is described, as well as the tools used for collection and application of information necessary for identifying the agglomeration borders. Commuter migration of population is analyzed in terms of the purposes, directions and intensity of respondents’ travelling between the Astana city and settlements around it, which indicates the density of various relationships within the agglomeration and, thus, provides an objective basis for decision making.

The history and the current state of higher geographical education in the United States are discussed, as well as its internal spatial and organizational structure and current place in the world education system. The main stages of the institutional history of geographical education in American universities are summarized, and the main factors leading to the current growth of its popularity are demonstrated. The composition of geographic education programs is analyzed for all US universities; the dominance of human-geographical disciplines is shown. The main features of spatial organization of different levels of geographical education are revealed, and the leading centers of geographic education are identified.

The article deals with the integrated study of the present-day external migration of population in Spain. For a long time in its history it has been a country of emigration. Since the late XX century Spain attracted a large number of migrants, becoming a country of immigration. At present, however, there is a mass emigration from Spain due to 2008 economic crisis and the growth of unemployment. The main geographical areas of migrants’ inflow and outflow are considered at various territorial levels. Both inflows and outflows of foreign citizens come from the same countries. Recently the geography of migration to Spain is becoming narrower. Regional differences in migration processes are identified. Active migration occurs in several most developed autonomous communities along the coast of Spain, while the rest of the country doesn’t admit foreign citizens. Changes of the national composition of migrants and their distribution over the country are examined. After the expansion of the EU to the east, immigrants from Romania hold the leading position among those coming in Spain, and Moroccan citizens maintain traditionally high proportion. The percentage of other EU countries and Latin America is declining. Migration of the population in Spain is very dynamic and heterogeneous. The situation changes rapidly, depending on the internal and external factors. This leads to the fact that the state and society face very different aspects of the process.