METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES
A variety of methods are used in economic geography to analyze changes in spatial distribution of production but no common methodology is applied. This is first and foremost because the statistical data regarding different branches of economy is highly variable in terms of availability, timeliness, fullness and coverage. Very often geographers apply statistical analysis methods to estimate the scale of spatial changes. In statistics, a number of indexes are used to measure structural changes but not all of them are equally suitable for evaluating spatial relocation processes. Our analysis suggests that such indexes should be used with caution. The adequate visualization is also necessary to complement the above-mentioned mathematical methods. Therefore, our methodological approach is based on a combination of mathematical, statistical and cartographic procedures which help to evaluate territorial shifts of production within an industry both internationally (i.e. on a worldwide level) and with respect to a given territory (i.e. country or region). These procedures are illustrated using the automotive industry as an example. The proposed methodology is based on relative indicators showing the countries’ shares in world production and therefore it could be applied to study changes in spatial distribution of both manufacturing and provision of services. Major driving forces behind the above-mentioned territorial shifts in the automotive industry during 2000-2014 are summarized. It is emphasized that these driving forces are common for many branches although their influence varies from industry to industry.
Upper Pleistocene deposits of the Srednyaya Akhtuba section (basic for the Lower Volga area) were studied by the method of optically stimulated luminescence (OSL). Eleven dates corresponding to different paleogeographic stages of development of the region were received. It allowed constructing the geochronological scheme of development of the studied region of the Lower Volga area and correlating it with paleogeographic events in the Caspian Sea, as well as with the glacial and interglacial rhythmics of the late Pleistocene on the East European Plain. The beginning of the late Pleistocene (MIS 5e, Mikulino interglacial epoch) is characterized by formation of a soil horizon outside the zone of influence of the Late Khazarian transgression of the Caspian Sea. The transitional stage to the Valdai glacial era is reflected in the section by the horizons of fossil soils (MIS 5c, dating 102 500±5160 years ago and 5a, dating 68 280±4170 years ago) divided by loess subaeral sediments (MIS 5d, dating 112 630±5400 years ago; and MIS 5b, dating 87 620±4100 years ago). The first glacial stage (Kalinin) of the Valdai glaciation (MIS 4) is characterized by formation of loess strata. The final phase of its sedimentation dating 48 680±3100 years ago corresponds to the beginning of the interstadial warming (MIS 3) when the Caspian Sea was in a regressive state. The second half of the interstadial warming (MIS 3) in the Lower Volga area is represented by alluvial strata dating 36 780±3000, 35 500±2800 and 27 000±1580 years ago. Soil formation traces reflecting the heterogeneity of climatic conditions of the era are recorded in its structure. The early stage of Khvalynian transgression developed in the Caspian Sea at the time. The era of degradation of the late Valdai (Ostashkovo) glaciation (MIS 2, dating 15000±1000 and 13000±500 years ago) is characterized in the Lower Volga area by accumulation of chocolate clay strata of Khvalynian transgression of the Caspian Sea. The end of the Holocene stage of sedimentation is dated («control date») back to 720±70 years ago. The first experience of dating of the upper Pleistocene deposits of the Lower Volga area by OSL method showed its prospects both for creation of the geochronological scheme of deposits and events of the region, and for their correlation with global climate changes, paleogeographic events in the Caspian Sea and on the East European Plain.
Complex approach to the estimation of runoff from the small catchments is suggested which makes it possible to consider the specific features of runoff formation in the mountains. River flow modeling is based on the «Hydrograph» model created by Yu. Vinogradov. The object of research is the Us River drainage basin (the right tributary of the Yenisei River) located in the middle and low mountains of the West Sayan. The authors suggested the technique of pluviometric gradients calculation based on the correlation analysis of daily precipitation data for warm and cold periods. The trends of the altitudinal distribution of precipitation were revealed. Areas with similar conditions of runoff formation – runoff forming complexes (RFC) – were identified basing on the mesoscale landscape map. Quantitative characteristics of soils and vegetation cover for each runoff forming complex (RFC) were used as parameters for modeling. According to the results of modeling the convergence of calculated and observed hydrographs becomes considerably higher if the pluviometric gradients and RFC characteristics are taken into account.
GEOGRAPHY AND ECOLOGY
Parameters of wind waves in the Black Sea were simulated by the SWAN model and NCEP/NCAR reanalysis. The results of the simulation are used to define specific features of the spatio-temporal distribution of storminess. The simulation results were verified by the data of in-situ measurements performed with a Datawell wave buoy. Simulated values of significant wave height are lower than measured ones, therefore an empirical relationship is applied for correction. Seasonal and inter-annual variability of extreme storminess was assessed by analyzing series of annual and seasonal significant wave height values corresponding to each year, maximum monthly wave heights, and the spatial distribution of seasonal significant wave height maxima. No significant trends of these parameters were derived. A period of increased storminess in the 1960-s – early 1970-s, which was determined previously in terms of storm number and duration, is also expressed in annual significant wave height maxima. The spatial distribution of storminess is assessed based on the locations of annual significant wave height maxima. Their highest recurrence corresponds to the southwestern part of the sea. Storms of July 13th, 1969, and February 13th, 2004, are discussed as examples of extreme storms on the Black Sea.
The effects of long-term (over the decades) direct violations of the movable riverbeds by major waterworks and in-stream quarries were studied basing on field observations at several Russian rivers and the analysis of publications. They led to significant changes of the energy of channel flow, characterized by specific power and the tractive force, which is an important factor of channel deformations. Morphological consequences of the hydroelectric facilities construction and the in-stream quarrying, such as riverbed degradation and scour, floodplain and riverbed disconnection, increase of the bed sediment size, transformation of the longitudinal profile of the river at a considerable distance, etc. were revealed. The process of the channel transformation is accompanied by the changes in flow energy characteristics, which determine the further development of the process itself. Downstream of dams and at the sites of vast in-stream quarries the riverbed deformation potential is drastically reduced over time due to the grade reduction and the increase of bed sediment size. In the immediate vicinity of dams on the rivers with initially mobile bed, the tractive force decreases by an order of magnitude during a few decades. The deformation potential also varies along the course of the disturbed river reaches. This contributes to the gradual slowing of the deformations and limits the possibility of riverbed recovery. The channel response depends on its initial morphology and bed sediment composition.
The territorial spread of cholera in the territory of the town of Saratov in the late 19th – early 20th centuries was analyzed retrospectively. It was found that landscape-geomorphologic and sanitary and environmental conditions supported the reproduction of cholera vibrio in the town. During the epidemics of 1892 and 1910 the highest density of disease cases was recorded in the area of urban ravines. This fact indicates that the hotbeds of cholera are landscape-dependent.
REGIONAL STUDIES
The results of monitoring of the linear retreat of gully heads within the Udmurt Republic during 1978–2015 are discussed. Regular monitoring covered the heads of 168 gullies. All of them are located within the agriculturally developed parts of the Vyatka–Kama interfluve. The main attention is given to evaluation of the gully head dynamics during 1997–2015, when principal climate and land–use changes took place. It was found that the rates of gully head retreat gradually decreased during 1997–2003 and then stabilized at an extremely low level (0,2–0,3 m yr–1). Therefore during 1997–2015 the mean annual gully head retreat rate reduced 3 to 5 times for different type of gullies as compared with the previous time period (1978–1997). The rates of head retreat were somehow different for slope and bottom gullies. Mean bottom gully head retreat is 0,55 m yr–1 while it is 0,31 m yr–1, 0,22 m yr–1 and 0,16 m yr–1 for different sub-types of slope gullies. Furthermore, a positive trend of bottom gully head retreat since 2008 was revealed, so in 2015 the gully head retreat rate reached 0.8 m yr–1. Lithological features have no considerable influence on the gully head linear retreat rate.
As a result of field glacio-geomorphologic studies and detailed analysis of aerial photos taken in the Imangda River valley (western part of the Putorana Plateau) four multi-aged moraine complexes were identified. Assuming as a basis that in the Late Pleistocene there were three stages of deglaciation in the north-west of Siberia (25–17, 15–13 and 11,5–10,4 thousand years ago) and that at its maximum stage the Late Pleistocene glaciation was mostly of mountain-valley type on the Putorana Plateau, we assumed that the first three moraine formations (the most ancient ones) correspond to these stages of the Late Pleistocene deglaciation. The fourth, younger moraine was formed during the Little Ice Age (the last millennium). According to our investigations and admitted assumption, in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene the glaciation of the territory was of cirque and mountain-valley type and developed only on the northern slopes. There was no continuous ice cover over the Putorana Plateau. However, isolated ice caps with outlet glaciers could exist in several parts of the Plateau.
The article deals with the history of forest fragmentation in the upper part of the Vorskla River basin. A quantitative assessment of the degree of forest fragmentation for three time periods (the end of the 18th century, the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 21st century) was performed for the area. Landscape reconstruction for the 16th century (after Yu.G.Chendev), i.e before the active economic development of the territory), was considered as a reference situation. Data on forest distribution in the past were obtained from old maps. The recent forest coverage was mapped using the Landsat satellite images. The results of the study show a trend of increasing forest fragmentation over time. In the course of development the areas of intense fragmentation gradually shifted downstream the Vorskla River and its tributaries. This was accompanied by the splitting of forest stands, the decrease of forest area and the growing indentation of their boundaries. The processes determined the present-day pattern of forests in the basin of the Vorskla River, formed under the combination of natural factors and the active economic activities.
SHORT NOTES
The article deals with the social stratification analysis based on the immigrants’ settlement pattern and housing prices. Social differentiation of urban areas is constantly changing under the influence of various factors, such as the immigrants’ settlement pattern, the real estate prices, income, employment etc. The growing poly-ethnicity is among the most important problems of modern large cities. Ethnic conflicts have brought to light both difficulty and complexity of the problem: they were not caused just by mistakes in migration policies of different countries. The original hypothesis is that cheap real estate prices attract poorer residents, including immigrants, thus increasing the social conflicts.
The Pan-Eurasian еxperiment (PEEX) is a multidisciplinary, multi scale research program aiming at resolving the major uncertainties in Earth System and Global Sustainability Science concerning the Arctic and boreal Pan Eurasian regions including the impact and influence of China. Conceptually PEEX is a scientific initiative by several European, Russian and Chinese research organizations and institutes. The promoter institutes of this initiative are the University of Helsinki and the Finnish Meteorological Institute in Finland; Lomonosov Moscow State University, Scientific Research Institute of Aerospace Monitoring AEROCOSMOS, and the Institute of Atmospheric Optics (Siberian branch) of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) in Russia; the Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth (RADI) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) and the Institute for Climate and Global Change Research of Nanjing University in China. The basic road map of the project – the so-called «Scientific PEEX Plan» – describes the program objectives and science for the future.
