The article discusses the essence of “rural area” notion. It is shown that geographical studies suggest different interpretations of rural areas: as a cultural landscape, as a habitat for the rural population, or as a socio-geographical space formed by rural residents in the course of their living. It is proposed to start with the idea of rural areas as a cultural landscape. According to the author, the originality of countryside is determined by the combisettlement and economy. The visual recognibility and identifiability of the rural areas are noted. The components (layers) of rural areas are named, as well as the elementary objects of which they consist. A special role of settlement network is emphasized. The author’s approach to the geographical typology of rural areas is suggested, based on the combination of the zonal typology of rural settlement developed by S.A. Kovalev and the ideas about the “ideal” types (“archetypes”) of rural areas associated with their functions. Geographic types of rural areas are the result of the superposition of archetypes over the zonal types of settlement. The diversity of geographic types of rural areas is shown for three principal zonal types of rural settlement in Russia.

For the first time, the conditions for floodplain-channel braided reaches formation are analyzed, the criteria for their identification as a structural level of channel processes are justified, and their connection with river water content, channel regime, flooding of floodplains during high water periods and morphology of valleys is discussed. This type of braided reaches is characteristic of wide-floodplain channels, being a specific form of meandering processes of medium and large rivers, such as the Upper and Middle Ob’, Vychegda, and Oka rivers. They are less common for rivers with braided channel and could be found only on large and largest ones (the Severnaya Dvina, the Lower Lena rivers) and in meandering channel branches of split channels (Yuganskaya, Malaya, and Gornaya Ob’ rivers). Such floodplain-channel braided reaches are the result of evolution of meanders or island-braided channels; they are formed as the river passes from one side of the valley to another due to the mismatch between channel and floodplain water flows during seasonal and flash flood periods. They could be formed if the effective water discharge occurs when the floodplain is inundated. They also arise: downstream large headlands of bedrock banks or bends of the valley, which have a directing effect on the flow, deflecting it towards the floodplain and contributing to higher water content in the floodplain channel branches and turning them into river channel branches; as a result of intra-floodplain interceptions of channel branches of split channel and floodplain channel branches; during the formation and evolution of cut-off bends; at confluences of large rivers due to the development of “delta” branches (Ob’ and Tom’ rivers, Amur and Bureya rivers). In floodplain-channel braided reaches with three or four branches they have a polygenetic character. They are rare in incised channels, being associated with large local expansions of channels (the Yenisey River, the Upper Lena River) as a result of water stream spreading and its rising because of the downstream narro wing by bedrock banks.

Between channel branches of the floodplain-channel braided reaches there are large island massifs of complicated shape, with much less ratio of their length (branching step) and width than the optimal one, i.e. 3–4, characteristic of island-braided channels of a drop-shaped or spindle-shaped form. The branches of floodplainchannel braided reaches have their own series of morphodynamic channel types (up to 3–5 bends or islandbraided reaches), the parameters of which depend on the water content of channel branches.

The article examines the spatial structure of small towns in Central Russia. The information base of the study covers satellite images of 190 small towns. The paper proposes a concept of morphological structure of the city, which is determined by the nature (shape) of external boundaries, the presence of significant internal barriers leading to the fragmentation of space, and isolated urban areas. A methodology for assessing the complexity of urban space is suggested. It is based on the scoring of the impact of various geographical barriers on the urban environment. The most significant barriers include rivers and railways; the relief features, the location of industrial enterprises and the presence of protected areas were also considered. Special emphasis was given to urban areas isolated from the main built-up territories, i. e. exclaves. Five classes of urban space complexity have been identified, from very simple to very complex. The most complex space is typical of five small towns, which were initially clusters of workers’ settlements. The combination of data on the morphological structure and complexity of space made it possible to identify six final forms of the spatial structure of the city. More often than others, there are cities with a dissected morphological structure in combination with a medium-complex space. One third of the cities under consideration have such parameters. The smallest number of cities has a dissected complex space. The cities tend to increase the complexity of their space in the process of development. The study showed that despite small population, the towns under consideration have very complex spatial structure.

Measures to support electricity generation at low-power plants using the renewable energy sources as well, which were introduced in the Russian Federation, actualized the task of assessing the effectiveness of such legislative initiatives. The paper presents and tests a methodology for assessing the performance and economic efficiency of network photovoltaic stations, depending on physical-geographical and socio-economic factors. The results of assessing the potential performance of stations in various regions of Russia, obtained on the basis of archives of data on incoming solar radiation for the period from 2010 to 2020, are presented with one hour resolution. It is shown that economic efficiency of Solar Microgeneration Stations (SMS) in the study areas varies widely depending on the combination of such factors as the amount of solar radiation, retail and wholesale electricity tariffs, and the regime of electricity consumption by SMS owners. Despite significant solar energy resources, the payback period of photovoltaic stations in the regions of Southern Siberia (Irkutsk, Ulan-Ude) turned out to be the longest among all areas under study because of the established tariffs for electricity sale and purchase. Optimal conditions for the operation of such stations are characteristic only for the regions of Russia that belong to non-price zones and territorially isolated energy systems of the wholesale market (Magadan and Kaliningrad regions, Kamchatka, Primorsky Krai), where high wholesale electricity prices make the payback expectable within the guaranteed life of the station equipment (20 years).

The medical-geographical analysis of spatially heterogeneous distribution of tick-borne infections in the south of the Far East was provided. The cartographic analysis of the spread of infections was carried out on the basis of literary materials and statistical data of Rospotrebnadzor on the incidence of tick-borne diseases. Statistically significant spatial clusters with a high level of morbidity with different local confinement were identified. The high levels of morbidity were found in the south of the Khabarovsk Krai and the Jewish Autonomous Oblast for Siberian tick typhus, in the central part of the Khabarovsk Krai for tick-borne borreliosis, and in the southwest of the Zabajkalsky Krai for tick-borne encephalitis.

The ecological patterns of structure formation and spatial differentiation of the winter fauna of mammals in the seas of the northeastern Palearctic are analyzed. The method of aviation route surveys in a 1 km wide zone was applied. Aerial surveys in the end of 1987–1988 winter period covered the Bering, Chukchi, East Siberian Seas, and the eastern part of the Laptev Sea. The recorded species of mammals (n = 7) are ecologically associated with open sea areas, sea ice, continental and island coasts, and continental tundra. The winter fauna of mammals in the seas of the northeastern Palearctic accounts for 23% of the total mammalian fauna of the region; pinnipeds and cetaceans predominate in terms of the number of species. The similality of the winter fauna of mammals in the Arctic Ocean and the Northern Pacific is 36%. Most of the mammals were observed on the leads in the contact zones between different types of ice or in ice-holes among the ice of autumn formation. Polar bears were most often observed near the Wrangel Island, beluga whales – to the east and northeast of the Navarin Cape, walruses – to the south of the Providence Bay. The average density of the winter population of mammals in the surveyed seas of the Northeastern Palearctic is 6.2 individuals/100 km². Walruses, beluga whales, and ringed seals predominate in the population, totaling 94% of the animal numbers.

Along the perimeter of the Far East region of Russia, a formed closed transport and economic structure has been identified. It can be described as the Great Far Eastern Transport and Economic Ring (GFETER). Four large segments are identified and considered in its composition: the latitudinal Southern and Arctic marine, as well as the meridional Western and Pacific marine. They are large interacting parts of the general territorial and aqua-territorial transport and economic structure, which consists of linear links represented by communication routes, nodes – settlements that perform certain transport and other functions, territorial and water zones of gravity to these structural elements. The analysis of the current state of the spatial structure of GFETER was carried out. This formation serves the most important passenger and cargo transportation – from intra-regional to inter-regional and transit, provides various forms of spatial development of the Far East region.

The transport specialization of the elements of this spatial structure of the GFETER is shown. The linear elements of the GFETER segments perform transport functions. Transport nodes in general perform more diverse functions determined by the action of a combination of factors: economic-geographical and transport-geographical position, geodemographic, scientific, technical and natural resource potentials, natural and climatic conditions. The main functions of the GFETER transport hubs are highlighted. The Vladivostok agglomeration hub occupies a special place among them. The significance of the GFETER for the Far East is due to the fact that its segments include territories and water areas where large natural resources are being developed. In the long term, various forms of spatial development of this structure are possible, including the construction of an Arctic railway line and a railway along the river. Lena. The construction of various transport links along the Pacific coast is also expedient. All this will initiate new forms of spatial development of the Far East region as a whole.

The development of a transport perimeter in the form of a GFETER significantly expands the prospects for the long-term integrated development of the region, improves the coordination and interaction of various modes of transport, and increases the degree of its regularity and reliability. This is especially true in view of the vast distances and growing volumes of traffic. The logistics potential inherent in GFETER can significantly strengthen Russia’s position in international transportation and cooperation.

In 1958 V.F. Perov, staff member of the Khibiny Research and Training Station of the MSU Faculty of Geography, described four snow-ice formations in the Khibiny Mountains and classified them as very small glaciers. Until our research began in 2005, these glaciers were not studied in detail. We used field observations, drilling, GIS and remote sensing methods to study the structure of the glaciers and evaluate changes in their geometry during 60 years. The snow-ice formations were drilled through for the first time and the ice cores underwent geochemical and isotope-oxygen analyses. The thickness of ice kernels varies from 0,2 to 1,6 m. Our investigations showed that despite a slight degradation, the glaciers` area remains relatively stable since 1958. This fact may be caused by the increase in solid precipitation in recent years. According to the analysis of climatic changes, in the early 2000s a decrease in snowfall was observed in the Khibiny Mountains. The maximum snow thickness at the meteorological site of the Khibiny station in 2002–2003 winter period was 55 cm. This could be a factor of more than 2 times decrease of glacier areas during 2000–2010. After 2007 there has been an increase in snow precipitation, and the maximum snow depth of 180 cm was observed in 2020, the absolute maximum for the whole period of observations (1984–2020). According to published data the increase in mean annual temperature at the plains of the Kola Peninsula is 2,3 ± 1°C during the last 50 years. However, mean monthly temperatures of the summer do not rise. We consider that, along with recently increasing snow precipitation, this is exactly what determine rather stable state of snow-ice formations in the Khibiny Mountains, which appeared to be more resistant to climate warming than mountain glaciers.

The study of intraregional migration in Russia is complicated by short time series and a limited set of published data, particularly at the municipal level. The publicly available data allow only general evaluation of migration parameters, e. g. the migration turnover, the net migration features, etc. More complete data, for example, on movements between municipalities, could be obtained from the regional statistical offices on special requests. Based on such data on intraregional migration in the Altai Krai in 2014–2018, the hinterlands of the urban okrugs were identified, and some characteristics of those hinterlands were revealed.

The migration turnover with ten urban okrugs of the region was calculated for urban and rural settlements of the Altai Krai. A settlement was attributed to the hinterland of a particular urban okrug basing on the maximum migration turnover with it. The hinterlands were delimited in two ways, i.e. with and without considering the capital city of Barnaul. By this we evaluated how the exclusion of migration to/from the regional capital, which dominates the system of intraregional migration links, affects the migration preferences of settlement residents.

The results of the study showed that the Barnaul hinterland includes more than half of the Krai’s territory with approximately 60% of the region’s population. The hinterlands of other cities are proportional to the population of their centers and are also influenced by their location in relation to the regional capital. Without considering Barnaul, several cities, such as Rubtsovsk and Slavgorod considerably expand their influence, while the hinterland of Biysk, the second-largest city in the region, changed only slightly. Despite the importance of the size of cities, the mutual disposition of subcenters and their location in relation to the regional center play a critical role in the intraregional migration. The study gives an idea of principal directions of inter-settlement migration in the Altai Krai.

The Sukhaya Mechetka is the most important Middle Paleolithic site in the Eastern Europe. The paper presents the analysis of the section, including its cultural layer, in the context of stratigraphy and paleogeography of the Lower Volga River region. The structure of the section represents 11 main stages of sedimentation and paleogeographic evolution of the site territory, which are closely related to global and regional changes in the climate and the level of the Caspian Sea. The base of the section reflects the stage of a river existence on the territory of the site that flowed into the Volga River estuary, formed by the Early Khazarian transgression of the Caspian Sea at the end of the Middle Pleistocene (MIS 6). A long continental period of evolution under multidirectional climate fluctuations of different amplitudes from the Mikulino interglacial (MIS 5e) till the Late Valdai glacial epoch (MIS 2) is reflected in the middle part of the section. The Late Khazarian and Hyrcanian transgressive basins (MIS 5), as well as the Paleo-Khvalynian stage (MIS 3) of the Caspian Sea did not reach the latitude of Sukhaya Mechetka. The stage of Early Khvalynian transgression (MIS 2, 16 190 ± 200 years ago) during the degradation of Ostashkovo glaciation is expressed in the upper part of the section. Three paleosoils have been found that reflect the warming periods of the MIS 5 stage and are related to its 5e, 5c and 5a sub-stages. The middle paleosoil contains a cultural layer assigned to the Micoquian/KMG community of Northern Eurasia. The climate was moderately warm during the Neanderthal settlement of the territory, steppe landscapes dominated the interfluve, and the forests grew in the balka. The Hyrcanian transgression of the Caspian Sea with an estuary in the Volga River valley predetermined a high erosion basis and the formation of a balka with a wide bottom and gentle banks. A permanent fresh watercourse attracted mammals which were an object of hunting for ancient men. All this, obviously, became a basis for the organization of settlement in the Sukhaya Mechetka balka. Correlation of the section with detailed studied loess-soil sections of the Lower Volga River region makes it possible to determine the age of its cultural horizon in between 97–110 thousand years ago.

The article examines the ethnic aspects of population migration in rural Bashkiria. The study area, i. e. Fedorovsky district of the Republic of Bashkortostan, is distinguished by a high ethno-cultural diversity of the population with six large ethnic groups living there, namely Tatars, Russians, Bashkirs, Chuvashes, Mordvins and Ukrainians. The methods of research are the analysis of municipal statistics and household books of rural settlements, the study of “genealogical trees”, the questioning of people and the autobiographical interviews. Different data sources were used to analyze the dynamics of rural migration at the level of rural settlements of the Fedorovsky district in the pre-revolutionary, Soviet and post-Soviet periods. It was found that the migration behavior of population depends on the ethnic structure of rural settlements and their geographical location. The ethnic groups represented in the Fedorovsky district are at different stages of U. Zelinsky migration model, which is reflected in the current migration situation in rural settlements. Collected statistical data allowed selective presentation of the post-Soviet structure of the intraregional geography of rural migration of the population of some settlements in the context of the cities close to the Fedorovsky district, i. e. Ufa, Sterlitamak, Salavat, Ishimbai and Meleuz. The final part of the article interprets the results of questioning to describe the mechanism of making a decision on educational migration for residents of three rural settlements with different ethnic structure of population, i. e. Mordovian Kuzminovka, Tatar Deniskino and Chuvash Kiryushino.

The article deals with the study of the dependence of return collector-drainage water from the large irrigated areas on the volume of water withdrawal for irrigation purposes and the total area of crops. The task is solved in the context of irrigated lands in the Bukhara region of Uzbekistan. Three variants of calculation were performed using an objective method of equalizing and normalizing correlations. Equations of normalized regression are obtained that characterize the relationship between the collector-drainage runoff, the volume of water intake from the Amu-Bukhara canal and the area of irrigated land. Their total multiple correlation coefficients are rather high. Based on the third variant of these equations, a calculated nomogram was plotted. The accuracy of the nomogram was assessed. The results showed that it can be used both for calculation and forecast of collector-drainage runoff from the large irrigated land areas in arid zones.

The assessment of the role of large cities as hubs of foreign TNCs is of particular importance in economic geography in the context of the formation of global business network structures. Based on the Forbes Global 2000 rating data, the range of presence of the world’s largest foreign TNCs’ affiliates in the London agglomeration, their industrial and geographic structure, and the pattern of location were assessed. As a result of the analysis, the historical stages of the formation of foreign corporate segment of the city’s economy were identified. London is highly attractive for foreign corporations, in their numbers it competes equally with New York and the world’s “gateway cities”. The maximum number of foreign TNCs’ affiliates was recorded in the sphere of financial and professional services, and, to a lesser extent, in mechanical engineering, chemical and mining industries. A relatively narrow geography of corporate links is revealed with a clear dominance of US companies. A pronounced “centric” model of foreign TNCs’ affiliates’ location is argued with two key clusters – in the City and Westminster areas.